Sacred animals
Before they became characters in bestiaries, many animals were divine presences. This section gathers the creatures that ancient and medieval religions regarded as sacred: the cat of Bastet and the Apis bull in Egypt, the cow and Ganesha's elephant in India, the eagle of Zeus and the owl of Athena in Greece, the she-wolf of Rome, Odin's ravens in the North, the stag of the Celts and of the hunter saints. Beside them stand the serpent of Asclepius and of the Nāgas, the scarab Khepri, the ibis of Thoth, the falcon of Horus, the monkey Hanuman, the horse of the Indo-European peoples and the bear of Artemis, together with the great Christian symbols of the dove, the lamb and the fish. Each entry reconstructs myths, texts, places of worship and works of art, distinguishing what the sources attest from what tradition tells. What emerges is an idea shared by distant cultures: to observe an animal often meant seeking in it a reflection of the order of the world.
The cat in ancient Egypt and the goddess Bastet of Bubastis
From lioness to cat: the story of Bastet, her sanctuary at Bubastis and the deep respect the ancient Egyptians showed towards their cats.
SAC · N. 002The sacred cow in India: from the Vedas to Kamadhenu and Krishna
Why the cow is sacred in India: the Vedic hymns, the doctrine of non-violence, the myth of Kamadhenu, Krishna the cowherd and the bull Nandi.
SAC · N. 003The Apis bull of Memphis and the galleries of the Saqqara Serapeum
Apis, the sacred bull of Memphis: the markings described by Herodotus, the link with Ptah and Osiris, the birth of Serapis and the Serapeum.
SAC · N. 004Mithras and the bull: the tauroctony in the mysteries of Rome
The scene of Mithras slaying the bull: origins of the name, symbols of the tauroctony, the seven grades of initiation and the mithraea of Italy.
SAC · N. 005The eagle of Zeus and Jupiter: messenger, abductor, standard of Rome
The eagle, bird of Zeus: omens in the Iliad, Prometheus and Ganymede, the eagles of Delphi, the sceptre at Olympia and the Roman legions.
SAC · N. 006Athena's owl: from the coins of Athens to the symbol of wisdom
Why the owl is Athena's bird: the Homeric epithet, the silver tetradrachms of Athens, the owl as an ill omen in Rome and the owl of Hegel.
SAC · N. 007The sacred serpent: Asclepius, Wadjet and the Nāgas of India
Three faces of the sacred serpent: the staff of Asclepius and Epidaurus, the cobra Wadjet of the pharaohs, the Nāgas of Hinduism and Buddhism.
SAC · N. 008The scarab and Khepri, the sun reborn every morning
The dung beetle and the god Khepri: the morning sun, the heart scarab of the Book of the Dead, seal scarabs and the great scarabs of Amenhotep III.
SAC · N. 009The sacred stag: Cernunnos, the vision of Saint Eustace and the Physiologus
The stag between Celts and Christianity: the horned god Cernunnos, the Gundestrup cauldron, the legend of Saint Eustace and Psalm 42.
SAC · N. 010Huginn and Muninn, Odin's ravens of thought and memory
Odin's two ravens in the Norse sources: the Grímnismál, Snorri's Edda, the Viking raven banners and the images of the Vendel period in Sweden.
SAC · N. 011The Capitoline Wolf: the myth of the twins and the mystery of the statue
The she-wolf who suckled Romulus and Remus: Livy's account, the Lupercal cave, the Lupercalia festival and the debate on the Capitoline bronze.
SAC · N. 012The sacred ibis and Thoth, Egyptian god of writing and the moon
Ibis-headed Thoth: scribe and lunar god of Hermopolis, the mummies of Tuna el-Gebel, the myth of Theuth in the Phaedrus and Hermes Trismegistus.
SAC · N. 013The falcon of Horus, god of the sky and image of the pharaoh
Horus, the falcon god: the Narmer Palette, the Horus name of the kings, the struggle with Seth, the wedjat eye and the Ptolemaic temple of Edfu.
SAC · N. 014The elephant and Ganesha, the god who removes obstacles
Ganesha, the elephant-headed god: the myths of his birth, his symbols, the Mahabharata, the elephant Airavata and the Ganesh Chaturthi festival.
SAC · N. 015Hanuman, the divine monkey of the Ramayana
Hanuman, the monkey chief devoted to Rama: his birth from the wind god, the leap to Lanka, the mountain of herbs and the devotion of Tulsidas.
SAC · N. 016The sacred dove: from Aphrodite to Noah's ark and the Holy Spirit
The dove in myth and faith: the bird of Aphrodite at Paphos, the oracle of Dodona, Noah's olive leaf and the Holy Spirit at the baptism of Jesus.
SAC · N. 017The sacrificial lamb: from the Jewish Passover to the Agnus Dei
The lamb in biblical tradition: blood on the doorposts in Exodus, Ecce agnus Dei, the Lamb of Revelation, the Ghent Altarpiece and Saint Agnes.
SAC · N. 018The fish and the ICHTHYS acrostic, sign of the early Christians
Why the fish was an early Christian symbol: the ICHTHYS acrostic, Tertullian and Augustine, the Roman catacombs and the epitaphs of Abercius and Pectorius.
SAC · N. 019The sacred horse among Celts and Indo-Europeans: Epona, aśvamedha and sun
The horse in Indo-European myth: the Vedic horse sacrifice, Rome's October Horse, the goddess Epona, Rhiannon and Macha, and the horses of the sun.
SAC · N. 020The sacred bear: Artemis of Brauron, Callisto and the goddess Artio
The bear in myth and cult: Artemis's little bears at Brauron, Callisto and the Great Bear, the Gallo-Roman goddess Artio and a debated prehistoric cult.